Main article:In 1963, Milgram submitted the results of his obedience experiments in the article 'Behavioral Study of Obedience.' In the ensuing controversy, the held up his application for membership for a year because of questions about the ethics of his work, but eventually did grant him full membership. Ten years later, in 1974, Milgram published Obedience to Authority. He won the in 1964, mostly for his work on the social aspects of obedience.
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Inspired in part by the 1961 trial of, his models were later also used to explain the 1968 (including authority training in the military, depersonalizing the 'enemy' through racial and cultural differences, etc.). He produced a film depicting his experiments, which are considered classics of social psychology.An article in American Psychologist sums up Milgram's obedience experiments:In Milgram's basic paradigm, a subject walks into a laboratory believing that s/he is about to take part in a study of memory and learning. After being assigned the role of a teacher, the subject is asked to teach word associations to a fellow subject (who in reality is a collaborator of the experimenter). The teaching method, however, is unconventional—administering increasingly higher electric shocks to the learner.
Once the presumed shock level reaches a certain point, the subject is thrown into a conflict. On the one hand, the strapped learner demands to be set free, he appears to suffer pain, and going all the way may pose a risk to his health. On the other hand, the experimenter, if asked, insists that the experiment is not as unhealthy as it appears to be, and that the teacher must go on. In sharp contrast to the expectations of professionals and laymen alike, some 65% of all subjects continue to administer shocks up to the very highest levels.More recent tests of the experiment have found that it only works under certain conditions; in particular, when participants believe the results are necessary for the 'good of science.' According to Milgram, 'the essence of obedience consists in the fact that a person comes to view himself as the instrument for carrying out another person's wishes, and he therefore no longer sees himself as responsible for his actions.
Once this critical shift of viewpoint has occurred in the person, all of the essential features of obedience follow.' Thus, 'the major problem for the subject is to recapture control of his own regnant processes once he has committed them to the purposes of the experimenter.'
Besides this hypothetical agentic state, Milgram proposed the existence of other factors accounting for the subject's obedience: politeness, awkwardness of withdrawal, absorption in the technical aspects of the task, the tendency to attribute impersonal quality to forces that are essentially human, a belief that the experiment served a desirable end, the sequential nature of the action, and anxiety.A competing explanation of Milgram's results invokes as the underlying factor. What 'people cannot be counted on is to realize that a seemingly benevolent authority is in fact malevolent, even when they are faced with overwhelming evidence which suggests that this authority is indeed malevolent. Hence, the underlying cause for the subjects' striking conduct could well be conceptual, and not the alleged 'capacity of man to abandon his humanity. As he merges his unique personality into larger institutional structures.'
'Inspired by the horrific events of Nazi Germany, Milgram's obedience experiments have been used to explain a range of social influences on the individual—including how police interrogators can get innocent people to confess to crimes they did not commit. At the same time, these experiments have come under attack. Some critics questioned whether subjects sensed the unreality of the situation. Others questioned the relevance of the laboratory setting to the real world.The most devastating criticisms involved the ethics of the basic experimental design. Professor Milgram, for his part, felt that such misgivings were traceable to the unsavory nature of his results: 'Underlying the criticism of the experiment,' Milgram wrote, 'is an alternative model of human nature, one holding that when confronted with a choice between hurting others and complying with authority, normal people reject authority.'
Daniel Raver looks back:Even though Milgram’s personal interests were diverse, his greatest contribution to psychology came through one set of experiments, but in that set he contributed monumentally. He helped justify a science some dismiss as unimportant, contributed to the understanding of humanity, and, even if by way of attacks against him, contributed to the consideration of the treatment of research participants. Small-world phenomenon. Main article:The concept was examined in Milgram's 1967 'small-world experiment,' which tracked chains of acquaintances in the United States. In the experiment, Milgram sent several packages to 160 random people living in Omaha, Nebraska, asking them to forward the package to a friend or acquaintance who they thought would bring the package closer to a set final individual, a stockbroker from Boston, Massachusetts.
Each 'starter' received instructions to mail a folder via the U.S. Post Office to a recipient, but with some rules. Starters could only mail the folder to someone they actually knew personally on a first-name basis. When doing so, each starter instructed their recipient to mail the folder ahead to one of the latter's first-name acquaintances with the same instructions, with the hope that their acquaintance might by some chance know the target recipient.Given that starters knew only the target recipient's name and address, they had a seemingly impossible task.
Milgram monitored the progress of each chain via returned 'tracer' postcards, which allowed him to track the progression of each letter. Surprisingly, he found that the very first folder reached the target in just four days and took only two intermediate acquaintances.
Overall, Milgram reported that chains varied in length from two to ten intermediate acquaintances, with a median of five intermediate acquaintances (i.e. Six degrees of separation) between the original sender and the destination recipient.Milgram's 'six degrees' theory has been severely criticized. He did not follow up on many of the sent packages, and as a result, scientists are unconvinced that there are merely 'six degrees' of separation. Elizabeth DeVita–Raebu has discussed potential problems with Milgram's experiment.In 2008, a study by Microsoft showed that the average chain of contacts between users of its '.NET Messenger Service' (later called ) was 6.6 people.
Lost letter experiment Milgram developed a technique, called the 'lost letter' experiment, for measuring how helpful people are to strangers who are not present, and their attitudes toward various groups. Several sealed and stamped letters were planted in public places, addressed to various entities, such as individuals, favorable organizations like medical research institutes, and stigmatized organizations such as 'Friends of the Nazi Party.'
Milgram found most of the letters addressed to individuals and favorable organizations were mailed, while most of those addressed to stigmatized organizations were not. Anti-social behavior experiment In 1970–71, Milgram conducted experiments which attempted to find a correlation between (in this case, watching television) and anti-social behavior. The experiment presented the opportunity to steal money, donate to charity, or neither, and tested whether the rate of each choice was influenced by watching similar actions in the ending of a specially crafted episode of the popular series.
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Goleman, Daniel (1984-12-22). Retrieved 2016-05-05. Goleman, Daniel (December 22, 1984). Retrieved 2008-08-07. Stanley Milgram, a psychologist widely known for his experiments on obedience to authority, died of a heart attack Thursday night at the Columbia Medical Center.
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(1974), Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View. Milgram, S. (1977), The individual in a social world: Essays and experiments. 3rd expanded edition published 2010 by Pinter & Martin,. Blass, T. The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram.
Milgram, S. (1965), Liberating Effects of Group Pressure. Milgram, S.; Liberty; II; Toledo, R.; Blacken, J. 'Response to intrusion in waiting lines'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 51 (4): 683–9.
Baumann, Michael; Leist, Anton, eds. Milgram and the perpetrators of the Holocaust (1998 issue 1 abstracts). Analyse & Kritik (in German and English).
20 (1): 49. Archived from (PDF) on October 7, 2013. Retrieved January 14, 2012.External links Wikiquote has quotations related to:., Yale University Library. Chapter 1 and Chapter 15.